Education 1918-79 - Creating a Welfare State 1918 - 1979

Early 20^th Century

·       Provision for formal education only became compulsory in England and Wales in 1880

·       Previously where schools had existed they had been provided by the church, charities and private foundations

·       The state began providing some funding to ‘fill the gaps’ from 1870 onwards, including new ‘board schools’ (basically state schools)

·       Private grammar schools and prestigious public schools prepared boys for uni

·       Most schools only provided primary education

1902 Education Act

·       In exchange for state funding 1,000 grammar schools agreed to offer 25% of places to non-fee students who passed an exam

·       However by 1914 only 56 out of every 1000 elementary school students gained a place

1918 ‘Fisher’ Education Act

·       The act aimed to widen access to education by:

–        Increasing the school leaving age to 14

–        Providing nursery school to toddlers and ‘contribution schools’ for new workers aged 14+ to continue their studies 1 day a week

–        Scrapping fees for elementary education

·       The Act also punished those who employed school children and provided free, compulsory health checks for secondary pupils

·       However few nursery & contribution schools were actually provided due to the Geddes Axe cuts in 1922

1926 Haddow Report

·       Recommended elementary schools be replaced with primary schools for ages 5-11

·       Recommended implementing a tripartite system of grammar, modern and technical schools

·       Nothing was done to act on the report until the 1944 Butler Act

40’s onwards

1944 Butler Education Act

·       Aimed to tackle the giant of ‘ignorance’

·       School leaving age increased to 15 in 1947

·       Secondary education  made free and universal

·       Education would follow the tripartite model of the Haddow Report; pupils would take the 11+ exam and their results would determine whether they went to a grammar, secondary modern or secondary technical school

o   Technical schools specialised in mechanical and technical education, very few of these schools were established because they were costly to run and only 5% of students attended these schools

o   Modern schools gave a general education. 70% of students went to these schools. Students would normally leave these schools at 15 with a Certificate of Education.

o   Grammar schools provided a highly academic education, they were usually single-sex. 20% of pupils went to grammar schools. Most stayed until 16 to take O-level exams, some then took A-levels and some then went on to university.

·       The authors of the act hoped there would be ‘parity of esteem’ between pupils of the different types of school

·       In reality, grammar schools had 3x the resources of secondary moderns, and the 11+ came to be seen as a pass/fail test, with those who did not ‘pass’ condemned to inferior education at a secondary modern.

The Crosland Circular 1965

·       Between 1960 and 1979 there was large debate on whether comprehensive schools should replace the tripartite system (often ironically referred to as the tripartheid system) as a fairer and more equal form of education

·       By 1964 10% of all pupils were educated in comprehensive schools, which accepted pupils of all abilities

·       In 1965 Labour Education Secretary Anthony Crosland issued a document, known as the Crosland Circular, calling for universal comprehensive education

·       In 1966 the government issues a document stating that funding for schools would only go to LEA’s that adopted comprehensive reform

·       The argument for comprehensive schools was popular with teachers unions and middle-class parents

·       By 1979 90% of students were educated at comprehensive schools

Arguments for comprehensive education

Arguments against comprehensive education

•       Grammar schools had 3x the resources of secondary modern schools. This did not promote ‘parity’ as promised in the 1944 Education Act. •       In the 1960s many secondary modern schools were already run-down. Comprehensive reform would help many children to avoid these poor schools •       Pupils who failed the 11-plus were condemned to a life of fewer opportunities: only two percent of those who failed the exam were still in school at the age of 17 •       The 11-plus favoured middle-class children over working-class children: very few children from working class areas passed the exam •       The majority of the public wanted to scrap the 11+

•       Many grammar schools were excellent and produced highly successful students •       Grammar schools were seen as a precious opportunity for social advancement by many working class families with bright children •       In 1975, the government forced direct grant grammar schools to go comprehensive. Many went independent instead; free placed were removed and poorer local parents could not afford the fees •       The rise of more private schools in place of grammar schools led to a system that promotes less social equality •       The majority of the public wanted to keep grammar schools

The 1967 Plowden Report

The 1967 Plowden Report was a report on primary schools that promoted more liberal teaching methods and progressive reforms like:

•       A large programme of nursery school building

•       More project-based work in primary schools, rather than teacher led activities

•       A focus on learning through play in the early years of teaching

•       The teaching of grammar and punctuation was seen as a hindrance to creativity and a threat to progress

Some schools took these liberal reforms to extremes, a move which worried parents:

•       Schools introduced relaxed discipline, no uniform and teachers were to be called by their first names

•       In the William Tyndale Junior School in north London, pupils could choose which classes to attend and could watch television or play table tennis if they didn’t feel like studying

•       Some secondary schools also began adopting the recommendations of the Plowden report

•       Parents became worried about ‘trendy teachers’ and a lack of discipline in schools

Other important reform:

•       GCS - only 20% of student took O-levels, the rest left school with no qualifications. The CSE was introduced in 1965 and students would be streamed into CSE of O-level classes. Though the CSE was seen as an inferior qualification, it offered more subjects and meant student left with some form of qualification.

•       The 1973 Education Act - raised the school leaving age to 16 and allow LEAs to set up work experience in place of lessons for final-year student, this helped students gain employment in the tough economic climate of the 70s

•       More students went to university - this was a result of extra government funding to boost the number of placed at new universities. Some universities dropped the requirement for applicants to have O-level Latin, thereby increasing application from comprehensive schools

University 1918-1979

Before the Robbins Committee report

•       Rising number of secondary school pupils and the growing government recognition of the economic value of education led to the growth of university education in Britain

•       Government funding for universities had increased from £1 million in 1919 to over £80 million in 1962

•       Between 1920 and 1950 the proportion of university costs met by students fees fell from 1/3^rd  to 1/8^th as bursaries became more commonplace

•       In 1962 local authorities were compelled to give an allowance or ‘grant’ to enable students to concentrate on their studies

•       The increase in student numbers received a major boost after WW2; the 1900 there were around 20 000 student, this rose to 38 000 in 1938 and 113 000 in 1962

•       Oxford and Cambridge dominated university education: In 1939 they educated 22% of students

•       Universities tended to cater more to classics and arts, then to science

•       The University of London grew hugely in the 20^th century: it had 13 000 students in 1939 and 23 000 in 1963

•       London increasingly specialised in STEM subjects

•       Some smaller universities founded by larger ones became fully independent (Reading, Nottingham)

•       However university was still out of reach for the vast majourity of people; the proportion of 18-21 years olds at university only increased from 0.8% to 4% between 1900 and 1962 - in contrast in the US 50% of that age group went to university

•       Only 13% of students at Oxbridge were female

The Robbins Report 1963

•       Made as the baby-boomer generation was approaching the end of secondary education

•       Report recommended:

–         A universal national grant be provided to all students with a university place

–         There should be a large increase in state funding to increase the number of university places

•       The advice was acted upon

•       Between 1962 and 1970 the number of universities increased from 22 to 46

•       In 1964 Labour created the CNAA, which allowed non-universities to award degrees: 34 technology colleges elevated their status to polytechnics which offered vocational degrees (although these degrees were seen as inferior)

•       The CNAA also enabled the launch of the Open University in 1969; mainly aimed at adults

•       Between 1970 and 1983 the number of students increased from 185 000 to 237 000 (however this was still far lower than other industrial nations)

•       Better access to university education increased social mobility and  resulted in a more highly educated workforce - the number of people who could demand higher salaries for skilled work increased

•       There was also less pressure to leave school at a young age